^>M.. jr ' 




T T 

185 

S5 







••' mt^^ 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS, 

--7^^ 



UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



AN OUTLINE 




COURSE OF LESSONS 

I T*'^ 




« 




WOO] 


D-WOl 


Kl\liNb, 




Copyright. 1S90, by Harlan P. Shaw. 




STATE NORMAL SCHOOL. 




I'.RIDGEWATER. .VLASS. 




1590. 






•~ 



AN OUTLINE 



COURSE OF LESSONS 



WOOD-WORKIl 



J. 



^^s.. 




1 



'^ 



^ 



Copyriyht, 1890, by Harlan P. Sio^tw. 




STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, 
BRIDGEWATER. MASS. 

1590. 



r 



iS 






f'3/'' 



WOOD-WORKING. 



I. Introduction. 

Object of the Course. 
Care of Tools. 

II. Bench Tools. (Names, parts, and uses.) 

III. Wood. 

Timber. Def. Felling. Sawing. Seasoning. Warping. 
The Grain of Wood. Dcf. Kinds. 

Defects in Wood. Ring-hcartcd. Shaky. Knotty. De- 
cayed. Wany. 
Measure and Value of Wood. 
Preservation of Wood. 
Classification of Some Woods. 

IV. Fastenings. Nails. Tacks. Screws. Wooden 

Fastenings. 

V. Constructive Drawing. 

Definitions. Constmctive Drawing. Plan. Elevation. 

IVorking D/unuiug. 
Notes. 

VI. Constructive Operations. Marking and Lining. Saw- 

ing. Planing. Cutting. Boring. Splitting. 
Nailing. Finishing. 

VII. Applications. 

Objects and Apparatus to be Constructed. 

Note. This course is adapted for the boys in the upper grades of the Grammar 
school and in the High school. 

Reference Books. Love's Industrial Education. Goss' Bench Work in Wood. 
Sickel's Exercises in Wood Working. Manual Training by C. H. Ham. Grew's 
How To Use Wood- Working Tools. Compton's First Lessons in Wood- Working. 
Burrill's Building Construction, and others. 

Method of Work. The teacher explains before the class the 
principles to be used, perform each new operatioR as it is called for, 
giving directions and using blackboard when necessary. The class 
then proceeds with the execution of the work individually , while the 
teacher gives additional helps to those who need it. Each piece of 
work is to be finished to the satisfaction of the teacher before the next 
is taken up. Prece^ding each lesson ten or fifteen minutes are usually 
taken for recitation and discussion. 



WOOD-WORKINO. 



INTRODUCTION. 



Object of the course. The object of this course in woodwork- 
ing is three-fold : such familiarity with the care and use of tools as will 
enable the stiident to make simple apparatus for use in the different 
studies; mental discipline by the action of the hand and eye; cultiva- 
tion of the industrial disposition by showing the value and dignity of 
manual labor. 

Care of Tools. Neatness and firder are essential qualities of good 
workmen. Keep bench, closets and tool drawer clean, and tools in 
their proper places when not in use. Avoid cutting or scratching the 
the bench. Be careful not to dull the edge tools by striking against 
any metallic object. Have on the bench only those tools to be used 
in the work at hand, put all others away. 

Use the tools only for the purpose for which they were intended ; 
chisels or try-squares not to be used as screwdrivers or hammers. 

Carefully protect polished surfaces of steel tools from moisture. 
Frequent applications of oil, or a mixture of parafifine and vaseline will 
prevent rust. If rust should appear, brighten the spot with fine em- 
ery cloth and oil. Planes should have their soles occasionally rubbed 
with the paraffine mixture ; when not in use, always keep them lying 
on their side, or on thin strips on the bench. 

The pupils should wear long aprons made of strong material. The 
work must be carefully protected from bruises by dropping, striking 
with hammer or other tools, and from chips on the bench After mark- 
ing out the work, it should be inspected and approved by the instructor 
before cuts are made. 

In all of the work three things are to be aimed for, and in this order : 
accuracy, which applies specially to marking and cutting; finish, or 
smooth appearance ; and quickness of execution. 



J 



BENCH TOOLS. 

Bench. 6' long, 32" high and 22" wide is a good average size. 

Vice. In order to hold the work well, the jaw should be kept para- 
llel to face of bench. It is adjusted by the screw and a strip contain- 
ing holes, fastened to the bottom of the vice. Avoid pinching the work 
too tight. 

Bench-stop. Used to keep work from sliding while being planed. 

Bench-hook. Used with the back-saw. 

Horses. Two at each bench. Should be at least 20" in height. 

Hand-screws. Should be at least two at each bench. 

Measuring and Lining Tools. 

Hu/e. A measuring strip made to fold. Hence called " two-fold," 
" three-fold," etc., according to the number of joints. 

Try-square. Parts : beam, blade. Its size is indicated by length 
of blade in inches. Used to erect perpendiculars and test right angles. 

Bevel. Used for marking or testing oblique angles. Show how to 
set it to an angle of 45°, 60°. 

Z?/77V/d'/'j- or compasses. Parts: legs, arc, set screw, thumb-nut. Used 
in scribing and for laying off circles or arcs. 

Marking-guage. Parts: beam, head, spur. Used to draw lines par- 
allel to a working edge. 

Pencil. Should be of medium quality and kept well sharpened. 

Scriber. A sharp pointed tool for making fine lines. An awl or 
jackknife may be used. 

Questions. What is scribing? Difference between a rule and a 
ruler. 

Saws. Parts : handle, blade, teeth. 

Cross-cutting saw. Used in cutting wood crosswise. 

Ripping saw. Used in cutting wood lengthwise. 

Compass saw. Used in cutting curves. 

Compare the teeth of these saws for differences. Draw diagrams. 
The size of saw-teeth is indicated by the number contained in an inch, 
i. e., " 6-teeth " or "6 pts." means that the distance from the extrem 
ity of one tooth to that of the next is ^." The kerf is the opening 
made in sawing. 

Chisels. Parts : handle (ferule) ; blade;-face, bevel, cutting edge. 

Framing chisel. Used with mallet. 

Firmer chisel. Hand use only. 



Chhsels may be either socketed or shanked. Explain. Their size 
is indicated by length of cutting edge. It varies from J" to i" by six- 
teenths, and from i" to 2" by fourths. 

Planes. Parts : wedge or chip ; plane-iron,-cutting iron, cap or 
break iron, connecting screw; stock, — toe, heel, sole, throat, handle 
(lever or thumb-screw, horn). 

yack plane. Used for rough work. 

Smoot/itng plane. 

pointer. A long plane for making straight surfaces. 

Block plane. Used for planing end grain. 

Show how to adjust the plane-iron. 

Boring Tools. 

Auger-bit. Parts ; spur, nibs, lips, twist, shank, tang. Its size is 
indicated by distance between extremities of nibs. 

Ghnklet-bit. Parts : spur, twist, shank, tang. 

Coiintersink-bit. Parts : reamer, shank, tang. 

Bit-stock. Parts: jaws (or socket), shank, handle, button. Show 
how to put the bit in the stock properly. 

Miscellaneous Tools. 

Screwdriver. Handle, blade. 

Hammer. Handle ; head, — face, eye, claw. 

Hatchet. Handle ; head, — face, eye, blade or bit. 

Mallet. Handle, head. 

Sandpaper. The " sand " is crushed quartz, which is graded and 
glued to paper. The finest is marked 000, from which it runs by halves 
to 33^, which is the coarsest. 

Oilstone. The best oilstones are found near Hot Springs, Ark. 
They are quarried and then cut into proper sizes. Show how to sharpen 
the jackknife, chisel and plane-iron on the oilstone. 

WOOD. 
Timber. 

Def. "Timber is that portion of the woody fibre of trees which is 
used in carpentry and jointng." In a limited sense timber is the larger 
pieces forming the framework of a structure in distinction from the 
covering which is called lumber. 

Felling. Trees should be mature. Why ? September is considered 
to be the best time of the year for felling timber. Why 1 



Sawing. Study the process of converting the logs into the various 
forms used in construction. 

Seasoning. Green wood contains from thirty to forty per cent, of 
water, which is largely removed by the process of seasoning or drying. 
Natural method requires from one to four years ; artificial method, 
short time, but with inferior results. Seasoning affects the length of 
timber very little, but it may shrink laterally fully eight per cent. 
Swelling occurs whenever timber absorbs moisture. 

Warping is the changing of the form of wood which results from 
unequal shrinking or swelling. The heart side of a board tends to be 
the convex side. Why ? Unequal exposure will also cause timber to 
warp. The side which loses the more moisture will tend to be the 
concave side. To straighten a warped board, wet the concave side 
and dry the convex side before a fire. In construction put the heart 
side of the board to the weather. 

The Grain of Wood. 

Wood is composed of long, hollow cells or fibres. The character 
and direction of these fibres constitutes what is called the grain of wood. 
The appearance which a finished surface presents is also called its 
grain. 

If the fibres are straight the wood is straight-grained., if crooked, 
cross-grained. If the fibres are small and compact, as in the box-wood, 
the grain is called fine; if nearly uniform in size, as in the maple, the 
wood is even-grained ; if varying greatly in size, as in the oak or ash 
the wood is coarse-grained. 

SecUons. (a) Along the grain. A cut tangential to one of the 
annual rings, i. e., not through the heart, shows a surface which is 
called si.le-grain. A radical cut, i. e., parallel to the medullary rays, 
or through the heart, shows a surface which is called edge-grain, (b) 
Across the grain. A cut square across the fibres shows end-grain. 
A cut oblique to the fibres shows a grain much used in veneers. In 
planing on an oblique section, going one way is with the grain ; the 
opposite direction is against the grain. Explain. In order to make 
a smooth surface in planing across the grain obliquely it is necessary 
to cut with the grain. 

Questions. What is sap wood ? Heart wood .'' What are annual 
rings? Medullary or pith rays? How determine the age of a tree ? 
What is veneer ? Silver grain ? Curled grain ? Birds-eye grain ? 



Defects in wood. 

Ring-hearted. Split in direction of annual rings. 

Shaky. Split in direction of medullar}' rays. 

Knotty. When large or loose, knots are a defect. What is a knot ? 

Decayed. - Due largely to parasitic insects and fungi. 

Wany. Edge of board or plank not square. 

Measure and Value of W^ood. 

For timber and lumber one inch or more in thickness-' the unit of 
measure is the board foot, which is a piece of board one foot square and 
one inch thick. Boards less than one inch thick are sold by the square 
foot, surface measure. Some of the more expensive and fancy woods 
are sold by the pound. 

The value of wood varies with the supply and demand. The qual- 
ity and appearance of wood also determine its price. Durability and 
a figured grain are qualities especially sought for. Find the market 
prices of the more common kinds of wood. 

Preservation of Wood. 

Notice the different methods of preserving wood. The primary ob- 
ject of oiling and painting is to preserve the wood from decay. Wo')d 
will not decay as long as it is kept dry and well ventilated. Neither 
will it decay if kept constantly under water. 

Classification of Some Woods. 

Elasticity. Lance-wood, ash, hazel, chestnut. 
Elasticity and toughness. Elm, oak, lignum vilae. 
Even j^rain. Pine, box, pear, whitewood. 
Durti>ility. Cedar, oak, yellow pine. 

Coloring matter. Red. Logwood. Yelhnv Fustic, zanti. Green. 
Green ebony. 

Scent. Camphor wood, rosewood, sindal wood, cedar, satin wood. 
Hardest wood. Iron bark wood of N. S. W., sp. gr. 1.42. 
Softest 7vood. Cortica of Brazil, sp. gr. .206. 

Notes. Make a collection of the different woods in com uon use, 
cutting them into pieces about 6" x 2" x ^'2" in size and so as to show 
side, edge Knd end gr^\n in each piece. Explain the process and the 
two objects of steaming wood. 



FASTENINGS. 

Nails. Nails are classified according to the process by which they 
are made, into ciit nails, 7c>roug/it nails and 7vire nails. They are 
generally made of iron or steel. Nails are also classified according to 
the use for which they are intended, into amimon and finish nails. 
The common cut and wrought nails have larger heads and stems than 
finish nails of same length. The common wire nail has simply a lar- 
ger head than the finish. 

The size of cut nails is e.xpressed by prefixing figures to the word 
"penny," as 6-penny, 8-penny, etc. 



A 3-pe 


nn 


y 


nail 


is 


i" 


long 


" 4- 










ir 


" 


" 5- 










li" 


" 


" 6- 










2" 




" 7- 










^r 


" 


An 8- 










H" 


u 


A lo- 










2|" 


(( 


" 12- 










3" 


(( 


" 2 0- 










Z^' 


" 



The size of wire nails is expressed by giving their length in inches 
and the size of wire. The figure expressing the size of wire varies in 
size inversely as the size of the wire. 

Tacks. The size of tacks is expressed by prefixing figures to the 
to the word "ounce." i-oz. tacks are t\" in length; 2-oz. tack, X' \ 
3-0Z. tacks, I" , 4-0Z. tacks, I'g-" ; etc. 

Screws. Screws may be either bright or blued, steel or brass, 
roundheaded or flatheaded. Explain. The size of screws is expressed 
by giving their length in inches and the size of the wire. The wire 
varies in size from No. {^^^' diameter), to No. 30 (^V' diameter). 

Make a collection of the common nails, tacks, and screws, arrang- 
ing them on thin strips of boards. 

Glue. Glue is chiefiy of two kinds, animal and fish glue. How 
made.'' The liquid form is the more convenient. What is sizing.'* 

Wooden Fastenings. Pins, wedges, and dowels. Dowels are 
small pins furnished by the trade. Show how to make a wedge 
properly. Explain use of blind wedging. 



CONSTRUCTIVE DRAWING. 

Definitions. Constructive drmving is describing the exact dimen- 
sions of an object on a plane surface. 

K plan is a constructive drawing of the length and breadth of an 
object on a horizontal surface. 

An elevation is a constructive drawing of the length or breadth and 
height of an object on a vertical surface. 

A uiorkiug drawiiig is such a description, by plans and elevations, 
of an object that it could be reproduced from the drawing. 

Notes. The elevation is always perpendicular to the plan. 

Working drawings are made to scale, i. e., a certain measure on the 
drawing represents a certain measure on the object. "Scale ^' =i"' 
means that -|" on the drawing equals i' on the object. Explain "half- 
size," " quarter-size," etc. Scale drawings may be either full size, re- 
duced or enlarged. Explain. The dimensions should be placed on the 



drawing thus 



The arrowhead exactly 



touching the points or lines between which the dimensions are given. 

The drawing should prece;^d: construction. The pupil makes the 
drawing from the model, or by use of his imagination ; then transfers 
the measurements to the wood, and proceeds with the construction of 
the object. In this way he gives expression to his ideas of form, size 
and proportfon of parts in a tangible manner. 

References. Aborn's Mech. Dr'g, Part II. Mech. Dr'g, by Linus Fauiice, Chap. 
VII. Bench Work in Wood, Part I. Sickel's Ex. in Wood-working, p. 62. 

CONSTRUCTIVE OPERATIONS. 

Note. These operations are best taught as they are needed in actual construction, 
and not as distinct lessons in themselves. They are grouped here simply for con- 
venience and clearness. 

Marking and Lining. 

/. To mark off distances with rule and pencil. Place the rule on 
its edge. Why .? Mark the points thus : V, the vertex of angle being 
the desired point. 

2. To erect lines perpendicular to a working-edge with try-square 
aud pencil. Keep beam of try-square firmly against the working-edge 
and draw the line along outside edge of blade. (When near the end 
of a board, do not have the beam extend over, turn it the opposite way.) 



J. To connect two points with a straight line. For distances less 
than one foot use the rule, placing it on its flat side; for greater dis- 
tances use a ruler, straight-edge, or chalk-line. 

4. To dyaii.' a line roughly parallel to a tvorkiug-cilge. Use the 
rule and pencil. Explain the inethod. 

5. To use the niarking-giiage. Set the head at the desired dis- 
tance from the spur. Draw it along the working. edge, pressing against 
it slightly and tipping the beam forward in direction in which it is 
moving, so that the spur will not cut too deep. 

6. To use the dividers in drawing curves and in scribing. Show 
(i) how to sctibe a board to an uneven surface, (2) how to scribe a 
chair, with legs of unequal length, to the floor. 

Sawing. 

/. To use the rip-saiv. Hold the saw lightly in the right hand, 
the forefinger extended along the outside of handle. Place board on 
the near ends of the two horses, the end of line to be sawed to the left. 
Hold the work firmly in place with left hand (and right knee if 
necessary). Begin the kerf by drawing the saw backward. Place the 
thumb nail of left hand against blade to keep it in position while start- 
ing the kerf. Proceed with the sawing, using no pressure, taking 
long, light strokes. Follow the line. Test perpendicularity of saw to 
board by the try-square until practice gives a correct habit. To guide 
the saw, watch closely it? path from a position vertically above the 
line. If the saw leaves the line twist the blade while it is moving in 
the kerf. 

2. To use the cross-cut saiv. Hold the saw as in i. Place the 
board on the front ends of horses so that the line to be sawed is 
about a half-inch from edge of tight horse. (Use left knee to hold 
work in place.) Finish the kerf by short, light, quick strokes, holding 
the piece to be sawed oft' with the left hand. 

J. To use bench-hook and back-saw. Vox light work. 

4. To use the mitre box. For sawing mitre joints. 

5. To use the compass sa7C'. For sawing curves. 

Planing. Jlrush all dirt from work to be planed. Put board in 
bench-vise for planing the edge, against the bench-stop for planing the 
side. 



Position for planing. Right side of body at bench behind rear end 
of board to be planed. Left foot advanced in a bracing attitude, and 
so that the body may move freely lengthwise of bench. Handle of 
plane in right hand loosely, with forefinger extended to the plane-iron. 
Left hand on the toe of the plane. 

The motion. Place sole of plane on the board with plane-iron just 
back of the rear end. Press down hard with left hand. Push firmly 
and steadily with right. When near the forward end let go with left 
hand. Always keep the sole parallel to the surface to be formed. 
Test the work with try-square and straight-edge. Show how to make 
a chamfer with the plane. 

Cutting. 

1. To use the Jack-knife. In making a chamfer. In making a 
wedge, a dowel and a small tenon. 

2. To trim to a li?ie with a hatchet. 

J. To use the chisel. In paring, chamfering and mortising. 

Boring. Put work in the vise. If there is danger of splitting 
make a hole with the brad-awl first. Put tang of bit in jaws of bit- 
stock properly. Take button of stock in left hand, handle in the right. 
Stand directly in front of the work. Place spur of bit upon the proper 
point. Rotate to the right. Bore until the spur shows through ; then 
turn the work and finish from the other side. 

Splitting. Show by exp. that (i) wood splits more easily along a 
line of growth than at a small angle with it, (2) wood splits most easily 
along the medullary rays. Distinguish between splitting and cutting. 

Nailing. Hold the hammer loosely in the right hand near the end 
of the handle. Strike square blows. Place the nail so that it will not 
split the wood. 

Movements, (i) Wrist movement, for driving tacks. (2) Elbow, 
for driving medium sized nails. (3) Full arm, for large nails. Show 
how to nail horizontally, to toe nails, to blind nail, to withdraio nails. 

Finishing. /. To sandpaper. The motion should be lengthwise 
of the work and 7i'ith the grain as far as possible, to avoid scratching. 
To preserve the natural appearance of the grain use common whiting 
with the sandpaper. 



10 



2. To finish 7i'ith oil and shellac, (a) Set the nails below the sur- 
face and sandpaper, using whiting, (b) Lay on a coat of oil with a 
woolen cloth, (c) Fill the holes, checks and cracks with colored 
putty, (d) Lay on a second coat of a mixture of shellac and raw oil. 

J. To finish with stain, (a) Same as 2, (a) and (c). (b) Lav on 
a coat of stain with a brush, (c) After this has dried, apply a coat of 
shellac with a brush. 

4. To finish loith paint, (a) Set the nails and smooth the surface 
with sandpaper, (b) Lay on the first or prime coat with white paint, 
(c) Fill holes, etc., with putty, and go over the surface again lightly 
with fine sandpaper, (d) Lay on the final coat of paint of the desired 
color evenly and smoothly, carrying the brush in the direction of the 
grain as far as possible. 

5. To finish in oil. (a) Same as 4 (a), (b) Mix equal quaniities 
of raw and boiled oil with a little japan dryer added, and apply one 
coat to the surface, (c) Same as 4 (c). (d) Apply another coat of 
the oil with a little varnish added, (e) Add a third coat of the same 
to secure a good finish. 

N^oics. Use alcohol to dissolve or dilute the shellac, spirits of tur- 
pentine to dilute the stain (if necessary). Clean the shellac brushes 
in alcohol or in soap and water, stain or paint brushes in turpentine 
or water. 



APPLICATIONS. 

A^ote. These objects to be constructed are arranged in a progressive series accord- 
ing to the difficulty of execution. The variety is limited to those which will be of 
practical use in the different studies of the public schools. Others may be added, 
involving a knowledge of the more complex joints, if thought desirable. In each 
case the work is to be prece^ded by a drawing. 

1. To Make a Ruler. 

Material. Dressed pine board V' thick. 

Work. (1) Mark off a piece 2^" wide and 24" long. (2) Saw the 
the piece out, lengthwise first. (3) Plain the edges perfectly straight 
and chamfer one corner. (4) Finish with stain and shellac. 

2. To Make a Test-tube Holder. 

Material. Dressed pine '^' thick. One narrow, wrought, brass 
butt with screws. One elastic band. 



11 



Work, (i) Mark and saw out a piece lo" x i" x |". (2) Plane it 
to io"x^"x|". Sandpaper. (3) Bore a f" hole one inch from 
end. (4) Saw lengthwise 4" through the middle of this hole ; and at 
end of this kerf saw crosswise half way through. (5) Attach the 
free piece thus formed by means of the hinge, and put elastic band 
around it. (6) Finish as before. 

3. To Make an Insect Stretcher. 

Materia/. \" pine. Sheet cork. 3-oz. tacks. |" wire nails. 

Work, (i) Mark and saw out two pieces 20" x ^" x 2 J/' > 1 ^-", one 
piece 4-^" X I" X ^'', one piece 2f"x|"x^". (2) Plane the work and 
sandpaper all except ends of large pieces. (3) Place the two large 
pieces wide ends together, \" between them ; narrow ends ]" between. 
(4) Nail on the cleats, one at each end, -^" from end. (5) Tack strips 
of cork over the opening betwet^n cleats. (6) Saw off the ends square, 
and finish with brown paint. 

4. To Make a Test-tube Rack. 

Material. Base i o" x 6" x ^". Two uprights 3" x 2 i" x i^". One top 
9\" X 3" X y. Six pins 8" long, \" diam. 

Work, (i) To lay out, saw, plane and chamfer the work. (2) To 
bore the holes for test-tubes and pins. (3) To nail the parts together 
properly and finish with oil and shellac. 

5. To Make a Specific Gravity Apparatus. 

Material. Base 6" square and l" thick. Upright 2o"x|"x|". 
One foot of No. 13 brass wire. One coiled spring. Two pieces of 
sheet lead i\" square. Twine. 

Work, (i) To make base and upright, and fit them together by a 
mortise and tenon joint. (2) To graduate one side of upright into 
equal units {\"), make pans out of the sheet lead and adjust the 
spring. (3) To finish in oil. 

6. To Make a Botany Preiss. 

Material. Two pieces i2"x22"x|" clear pine, dressed. Four 
cleats if"xii"x|". Sixteen 14/ig screws, round head, blued. Two 
wooden hand clamps. 

Work, (i) To get out the stock to the proper sizes. (2) To fasten 
the cleats by means of screws. (3) To finish in stain and shellac. 



12 



7- To Make a Parallel Force Apparatus. 

Material. Base 6" square y thick. Upright i'xi"x^". Beam 
i2"xi"xy. Ten pieces sheet lead i" square, two pieces 2" square. 
Twine, nails, etc. 

8. To Make a Pentagraph. 

g. To Make a Box with Lid.— For insect collections. 

10. To Make a Case for Books and Papers. 

Additional Apparatus, such as butterfly net, shelves, picture 
frames, brackets, and models for drawing, may be made if there is 
time. 



LlbKAMY Ul- uuiNVjncoo j. %^^ 



013 974 061 ^ 



•'-'^^^^^^^^^^^^P Tvl *^' 




■r 








W '■ 




l". 






V:' ^-^^>*. 






